The effects of challenge and threat states on performance outcomes: An updated review and meta-analysis of recent findings

Abstract

The biopsychosocial model (BPSM) of challenge and threat provides a framework for understanding stress responses in motivated performance situations, including how stress relates to performance. In this model, experiences of challenge—characterized by evaluations of personal coping resources matching or exceeding situational demands—elicit approach-oriented patterns of physiological responding and tend to facilitate performance, whereas threat—characterized by demands exceeding resources—elicit avoidance-oriented patterns of physiological responding and tend to impair performance. Extant systematic reviews and meta-analyses support the idea that challenge facilitates performance relative to threat (Behnke & Kaczmarek, 2018; Hase et al., 2019). The present systematic review and meta-analysis builds on this evidence base by examining whether conclusions replicate in recent research (post-2017), which is important given seismic cultural shifts tied to a worldwide pandemic, civil unrest, and skyrocketing mental health problems tied to stress. The analysis included 62 studies published between 2017 and 2024 (total N = 7,418 participants). The meta-analytic findings indicate that individuals in a challenge state achieve better performance outcomes than those in a threat state across multiple domains (e.g., education, sport). While effect sizes were small, the risk of bias was generally low. These results reaffirm the utility of the BPSM and emphasize the importance of stress responses in influencing performance outcomes. These data also have the potential to inform future research on this topic by shedding light on expectable effect sizes and highlighting potential influences of publication bias and replicability issues.